A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T V W X Y Z

A

Anatomist

In the context of this Topic, an anatomist refers to someone who studies, teaches, and/or conducts research on the human body as a professional. In medical schools, the subject of anatomy is taught by anatomists who may or may not be qualified physicians. Anatomy teachers for undergraduate medical students are typically academics and current physicians, as well as physicians who are no longer in active clinical practice.

Assessment

In medical education, assessment is crucial for evaluating a student’s progress and to ensure that they are able to practise medicine safely and competently on qualification. Assessment can take different forms, including written examinations, oral or viva voce examinations, clinical examinations, and reflective portfolios. In addition to monitoring a student’s learning, assessments can identify strengths and weaknesses, providing specific and timely feedback to enable a student to improve and develop professionally.

Attitudes

The use of the word ‘attitude’ is first recorded in 17th century France to describe ‘posture or position of a figure in a statue or painting’ from the Italian attitudine ‘disposition, posture’. Later it was generalized to mean a ‘posture of the body supposed to imply some mental state’ (18th century), or a sense of a ‘settled behavior reflecting feeling or opinion’ (19th century). Thus the term ‘attitude’ reflects some observable state of mind, for which some meaning is assigned. The observation period is short, and not necessarily repetitive. One encounter with the person can inform the attitude of the person perceived by the observer. Normative interpretation of the observation is already included in the description of the perceived attitude. Therefore, this is a very subjective evaluation with a high risk of error. To reduce error, the observation period must be increased. Further improvements in reliable observations can be obtained if the normative assessment is based on an external, objective reference which is agreed by both parties (observer vs. observed). Such references are provided by global quality assurance organizations, by professional societies, or in form of ethical or legal codes acquired by a significant number of countries.

This project aims to interpret attitudes in the context of medical education.

C

Central Europe

While there are different definitions of this region, Central Europe is generally viewed as a geographical region of Europe between Eastern, Southern, Western and Northern Europe. This area is known for its cultural diversity, although these countries also share historical and cultural similarities. Central Europe may include Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. Anatomists who participated in the Erasmus+ LEANbody project teach in medical schools in Croatia, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. However, delegates from Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia have also attended a number of multiplier events.

Competency

The word from the old French competent means `sufficient, appropriate, suitable’. It comes directly from the Latin competentem (nominative competens), the present participle of competere "coincide, agree". Originally it was not related to `compete`, or `competition` up until the 19th century. Thus, the term `competency` is a normative term meaning `doing something well` compared to an external, normative, objective standard rather than compared to e.g. somebody else's opinion who has won a competition (e.g. a leadership role).
The LEANbody project deals with normative standards relevant to medical education as defined by global stakeholders (WFME).

Course Director

A course director is responsible for coordinating the planning of modules to be offered on a teaching course. They provide educational resources that are required for effective teaching and learning, and ensure that the teaching programme align with course objectives and intended learning outcomes. They determine the composition and suitability of both formative and summative assessments, assess the quality of teaching provided by faculty members, and assist individual staff members with their professional development.

Cultural competencies

Cultural competencies are abilities with which someone can cause the growth and preservation of a particular population clearly and measurably. This means the ability to successfully interact with certain conditions without which the growth of a particular population is impossible. Thus, cultural competencies are a selected and proven set of activities that not only intend to cause growth of a population but also deliver on this promise in a clear observable way.
In the context of this project, cultural competencies mean abilities with which academic teachers can cause in a culturally homogenous cohort of their students a measurable increase in fitness for medical profession.

Culture

The English word ‘culture’ comes from 16th-century French taking it from medieval Latin ‘colere’ which is also the root word for another English term ‘cult’. It is interesting to note that the bloody ‘wars of religion’ of the 15th-18th centuries in Europe and the even more bloody ‘cultural wars’ of the 20th century both sound absurd if we look at the core meaning of their common root word. ‘Colere’ means some collection of human activities intended to cause the growth and preservation of a population (‘cultivate’). Other words born in the same historical period in Europe are ‘civilisation’, ‘society’, ‘nation’, and ‘country’. All of these words have a joint meaning and usage to identify groups of people as distinct from other groups of people. Thus, `culture` may presume a collection of conditions (as opposed to genetic or inherited traits) that help the growth of a group of living humans over other groups of living humans.

In the LEANbody project, the population to be `cultivated` is defined as medical students studying anatomy and their anatomist teachers. Growth of this population means professional development in a global environment while learning anatomy.

D

Dropout Rate

This refers to the percentage of students who do not complete a course or study programme after intervention. In terms of tertiary education, it is the proportion of students who leave the university course without obtaining a first qualification. The dropout rates for medical students vary between countries, with a global average of 11.1%.

E

Educational Programme

Within medical education, an education programme refers to a programme that is designed to align with course objectives by integrating evidence-based natural and social sciences in foundational training, clinical training, and practical experience. It is listed by the WFME as one of the essential components of medical education.

Epistemic Logic

Epistemic logic is a sub-discipline within philosophical logic that is concerned with logical approaches to knowledge, belief, and related notions. Epistemology refers to the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction between justified belief and opinion. One of the surveys provided to participants of the Erasmus+ LEANbody project attempted to explore how WFME standards can be understood in the context of medical education.

I

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

These refers to a specific type of learning outcome that define the desired result for a course, and are expressed from the student’s perspective. ILOs are used to guide teaching and learning activities, as well as methods of assessments. ILOs describe what a student will have acquired and will be able to do upon successful completion of their studies. They should be measurable, achievable, and assessable.

Intercultural competencies

Intercultural competencies are abilities with which someone can identify, analyze, or successfully manage differences between growth rates of different populations. This presupposes a thorough knowledge of conditions without which the growth of any population is impossible (i.e. a high level of cultural competence). One needs to be competent in at least one population to be able to realize differences if compared with populations other than their own.
In the context of this project, intercultural competencies mean abilities with which academic teachers can cause in their students a measurable increase in fitness for the medical profession regardless of the differences between linguistic or cultural traditions encountered during the teaching process.

Interculturality

The Latin word `inter` (in English `between`) indicates the existence of a set of differences or gaps between a minimum of two different entities. `Interculturality` is based on the assumption that differences may be observed between conditions responsible for growth rate in a minimum of two populations of humans.
It seems to be an important fact that `growth` is bound to the root meaning of `culture`. This association abolishes the widely promulgated belief that all cultures would be equal and thus they would not be subject to normative, objective comparison or rank order. The opposite is true. A hierarchical order can be established along those conditions that support the optimal growth of any given population. The word `intercultural` was introduced precisely to indicate an intentional comparison and analysis of a minimum of two different cultures.
In the LEANbody project, the populations to be compared and analyzed are medical students and academic teachers coming from different linguistic and teaching traditions. The subject of analysis of these populations is professional development while studying anatomy.

K

Knowledge

The first part of this term (`know`) was used in the early 12th century as cnawlece `acknowledgment of a superiority, honor, worship`. The second element may come from Scandinavian and cognate with the -lock `action, process` found in `wedlock`. From the late 14th century used as "capacity for knowing, understanding; familiarity;" "fact or condition of knowing, awareness of a fact;" also "news, notice, information; learning; organized body of facts or teachings." Sense of "sexual intercourse" is from c. 1400. Middle English also had a verb form, knoulechen "acknowledge" (c. 1200), later "find out about; recognize," and "to have sexual intercourse with" (c. 1300). It is important to realise that the root of `knowledge` reflects a substantial relationship between persons rather than the capacity to store abstract pieces of information. It seems that knowledge was a social act and not a solitary mental activity of abstraction.
This project aims to interpret knowledge competencies in the context of medical education.

L

Leadership

Leadership refers to the ability of an individual, group, or organisation to influence or guide other individuals, teams, or organisations in order to achieve a common goal. Within a medical programme, leadership is exercised by the course director and all the teachers, as their actions serve as exemplars for all their students. While there are many different leadership styles, general aspects of good leadership includes the ability to understand and encourage others, and the humility and adaptability to effect changes according to feedback.

Learner-Centred Pedagogy

This is also known as learner-centred education or student-centred pedagogy, as it is a teaching method that places the student at the centre of the learning experience. This is in contrast to the traditional teacher-centred approach, where it is the teacher who determines the pace and structures of the lessons. In student-centred pedagogy, students are encouraged to participate actively in their learning, which will include speaking, listening, writing, collaborating with other students in the classroom, working together with others on a common project, and monitoring their own progress.

Learning Outcomes

Learning outcomes are measurable statements that describe what learners should know and be able to do by the end of a teaching programme. These include the knowledge, skills, or values that students should be capable of demonstrating after completing the course. They differ from teaching aims, which indicate the overall purpose of a course or session. Good learning outcomes should indicate the evidence that shows when learning has been achieved.

M

Medical Education

Medical education is an academic discipline which consists of the process of training students to become medical professionals. These professionals include doctors, dentists, and veterinarians. A lifelong process, medical education includes the initial training required to become a qualified medical professional, further training to become a specialist in different fields, and continuing professional development to maintain competence, as well as learning new skills.

Mental Health

This refers to the emotional, psychological and social wellbeing of an individual. Medical students in particular are more likely to experience a wide range of mental health problems than those who are on other courses, as their workload is high and there is a certain stigma attached to seeking help and support.

O

Objectives

Objectives are the first of the fundamental requirements stated by the WFME as being expected from medical education programmes universally. They refer to the goals of the medical programme that align with the specific healthcare needs of society.

P

Professional Attitudes

In medical education, professional attitudes refer to the specific judgments that students hold and that they should possess in order to demonstrate a commitment to the doctor-patient relationship, so that physicians can provide the highest standards of care. Examples of such attitudes include always acting in the patient’s interests, being honest and component, respecting the patient’s dignity, confidentiality and rights, as well as maintaining high ethical standards and acting responsibly.

Professional Behaviours

Professional behaviours are the outworkings of having professional attitudes and values. Examples of professional behaviours in medical education and practice include dressing appropriately for work, communicating effectively and respectfully to colleagues and patients, being punctual and demonstrating efficient time management, responding to colleagues and patients consistently, seeking feedback and incorporating this into any subsequent work, and reporting any problems that may arise in the course of their clinical practice.

Professional Values

In medical education, professional values refer to a set of beliefs that guide medical students to behave in a certain way within a professional setting. Having professional values means that medical students should hold themselves to account, and maintain a certain level of professionalism and care in everything that they do. In a physician, such values will include empathy, understanding, autonomy, honesty, integrity, accountability and reliability.

S

Skills

The use of the word ‘skill’ is first recorded in the 12th century as ‘power of discernment’ from Old Norse skil ‘distinction, ability to make out, discernment, adjustment’. It is related to skilja ‘to separate; discern, understand’ from Proto-Germanic skaljo- ‘divide, separate’ (source also of Swedish skäl ‘reason’ Danish skjel ‘a separation, boundary, limit’ Middle Low German schillen ‘to differ’, Middle Dutch schele ‘separation, discrimination’ from proto-indo-european root skel- ‘to cut’). Sense of ‘ability, cleverness’ was first recorded early 13th century. It is interesting to see that a relatively violent verb `cut` is the root, however, with an accomplished outcome of the ability to separate what is good from what is bad. One more normative term in our glossary suggests some sort of external, normative, objective reference.
This project aims to interpret skills in the context of medical education.

Social Accountability

Social accountability is the second component of the fundamental requirements stated by the WFME as being expected from medical education programmes universally. It refers to an obligation by medical schools to provide evidence to the general public that the Objectives of the medical programme are realistic. This will involve effective communication to the public of how the aims of the programme will be achieved.

Standardised Assessment

In general, a standardised assessment is a method of evaluation that ensures consistency so that comparison can be made between the performance of individuals or groups. Such an assessment includes having questions in the same style, answers that are scored using the same predetermined criteria, and with all students being given the same instructions. Within medical education, standardised assessment may involve the use of standardised patients, objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs) and standard setting to establish a pass mark by defining a performance standard.

Student Retention Rate

In medical education, the student retention rate is a measure of the number of students who successfully complete their academic programme to qualify as a medical practitioner. The student retention rate of a medical school is an important piece of data that reflects the quality of education and support that students receive. Strategies to improve student retention include the identification of at risk students in order to create appropriate interventions to enable them to finish their courses.

Student-Centred Pedagogy

Please see Learner-centred pedagogy.

Students

One of the essential components of medical education as listed by the WFME. Students who have enrolled in a programme will undergo comprehensive and fair assessments of their performance, progress, and competence. These should align with the stated objectives of the medical course, and the students should be able to demonstrate successful achievement of the Intended Learning Outcomes.

T

Teachers

Along with Students, Teachers should be able to align their instruction within the medical course through engagement in competent teaching of students, research, and professional development. Teachers would typically operate under the supervision of a course director, who will perform regular reviews of the success of the teaching programmes.

Traditional Pedagogy

Traditional pedagogy refers to a conventional method of teaching that focuses on the transfer of factual information to students through teacher-led instruction. This teaching method typically includes didactic lectures, textbooks, rote learning, recitation, and memorisation. The emphasis is on content transmission, and refers predominantly to a face-to-face teaching environment.

W

World Directory of Medical Schools

This is a list of all the medical schools in the world that is maintained by the WFME. The Directory attempts to provide accurate, up-to-date and comprehensive information on each medical school. The aim of the Directory is to assist prospective students and medical

regulatory authorities to make informed decisions about the medical schools in their respective countries, and to inform both researchers and members of the general public about the characteristics of medical education programmes around the world.

World Federation for Medical Education (WFME)

A non-governmental organisation that was founded on 30 September 1972 in Copenhagen with the objective to “enhance the quality of medical education worldwide, with promotion of the highest scientific and ethical standards in medical education”. WFME works with doctors, educators and universities worldwide to support healthcare for all, through promoting high quality in medical education for current physicians, trainees and prospective students.

World Medical Association

The World Medical Association (WMA) was founded in 1947 in Ferney-Voltaire, France, as an international and independent conferedation of professional medical associations representing physicians worldwide. Its membership includes over 10 million physicians, as well as junior doctors and medical students. It has official relations with the World Health Organisation and collaborates with the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right of all individuals to physical and mental health.

WFME Standards

These comprise a global expert consensus on the standards for medical schools and providers of medical education within their training programmes. These are divided into three areas: Basic Medical Education, Postgraduate Medical Education, and Continuing Professional Development. The Standards are not intended to be prescriptive, but provide a framework to guide the development and evaluation of medical education programmes.

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